B.
K. Rana
Linguistic
Society of Nepal
email:
bk_rana@hotmail.com
New Materials on
Kusunda Language
( Presented to the Fourth Round Table
International Conference on Ethnogenesis of South and Central Asia, Harvard
University, Cambridge MA, USA. May
11 - 13, 2002 )
The Himalayan
kingdom of Nepal is extremely rich and complex in cultural as well as
linguistic diversity. The diversity as such is mainly because there live
diverse ethnic groups of peoples since thousands of years, each of which has
its own distinct language and culture. Kusunda is one of the ethnic groups of
peoples whose language and culture are believed precious to the students of
ethnology.
Kusundas are also known as one of the indigenous peoples of
Nepal. They feel embarrassed having an introduction as the Kusundas. Therefore,
they seem to have shifted to other languages and cultures apparently leaving an
impression of their extinction. Their tribal name is myahq - ‘king of forests’. Before presenting anything
about the Kusundas, I must extend my profound gratitude to Dr. Michael Witzel,
Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard, without whose constant guidance and
encouragement for almost two years through electronic mediums, my presence to
this prestigious conference would have been impossible. Meanwhile, I should
also sincerely thank Professor Harold Fleming and Paul Whitehouse whose
inspiring letters prompted me to continue my research on the Kusundas. Paul
Whitehouse's article in Mother Tongue (1997) was also something new and important to me. And, his
comments on my article in Janajati
(2001) also
inspired me to further work on the Kusundas.
I must also quote here then British Resident Representative
to Nepal, Brian H. Hodgson's lines on Kusundas as "they were generally
supposed to be autochthones, or primitive inhabitants of the country, were near
to what is usually called the state of nature as anything in human shape can
well be, deemed very precious by all the real students of ethnology. Their origin, condition and character
are, in truth, ethnic facts of high value, as proving how tribes may be
dislocated and deteriorated during the great transitional eras of society" (Hodgson 1857). This information is
brief and sketchy but it has always induced me to go into Kusunda studies.
Kusunda research is not yet completely accomplished. It will take sometime more
and therefore, we are optimistic that our Kusunda informants will live long so
that we will become able to reasonably finish with our studies on them. It is our
sincere hope that the concerned authorities will also do something meaningful
from their part to preserve Kusundas in the Himalayas.
Kusunda has also been cited as a dead language. My research
data on Kusunda do not support this claim. It is a fact that Kusunda has quite
a few speakers, who have shifted to other language groups, causing language
attrition owing to marriage, migration and other soci-economic changes the
societies have undergone. Under these circumstances, it may well be surmised
that Kusunda is on the verge of extinction and may die out with the death of
its remaining living speakers. It is, therefore, high time to document and
analyze this language before it is lost into oblivion.
Kusunda Ethnicity and Population
Kusundas are also called Banarajas - Kings of the forests, because they
used to live in the forests, called themselves *myahak[1] had a kind of taxation system over
Rautes[2].
Kusundas were Kings and Rautes were their subjects. Generally Rautes run away
if they happen to see a Kusunda from a distance. This can be noticed even today
along the Raute track in the Surkhet district of Midwest Nepal. Kusundas
had a foraging society. But, the case is different now; there
is no left Kusunda who gathers and hunts in the wild. I have found 7 Kusundas, in the central and mid-western
hills of Nepal, whom I believe ethnically pure by origin and two of them are
younger females married to Chhetris, another ethnic group in the country. There are few other Kusundas of mixed
origin; including them the Kusunda population in Nepal will not exceed fifty in
total[3].
I believe, both 'Banaraja' and 'Kusunda' are names given to the 'myahq
peoples' (Kusundas)
by other communities. Kusundas are also said to be the offspring of 'Kusha' - Rama's second son born from 'kusha grass' in Valmiki’s Cottage. This
story is well depicted in The Ramayana. Chepangs[4]
also believe they are the offspring of Sita's first son Lohari or Lava who is
also very famous in the Ramayana. Lohari and Kushari were two sons of Sita. The
Kusundas believe that they are
offspring of Kushari - Kusha.
Later Lohari and Kushari became rivals. Then the Kusundas and Chepangs began to
live separately. Some of the
Chepang cognates have some similarity with that of Kusunda's. Both Kusunda and
Chepangs are found in the hills of Nepal.
Kusunda culture
is nonexistent now. But, there is their language which, I believe, originated
in the Sino-Tibetan area; or it
could be an earlier language in this area. However, a number of eminent linguists
have written to me explaining that some of the present Kusunda cognates might
be Tibeto-Burman borrowings. If it is to be believed, then Kusunda will be a
‘barren’ language without its own cognates for objects such as: *ing
(sun), *ngsa (fish), *uyu
(blood), *gepan
(language), *un (trail), *langhai
(village), *suta (thread), *mucha
(banana), *kakchi (crab), *tu (snake),
etc. So, it is a matter of thorough research. Robert Shafer (1954) was the
first scholar to notice Kusunda as a language isolate. Professor H. Fleming as
well as most other linguists also believe that this is a language isolate. Yet,
it may also be argued that Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman as well as other
languages also shared with Kusunda. It is a matter of serious study as to what
is the genesis of Kusunda language in the Himalayas. The
Kusunda people, their language and culture are very important to both linguists
and anthropologists alike. Recently the Kusundas have undergone a drastic
change in their life style, as the result of which they have completely
forgotten their own ulture and tradition.
Still, fortunately there is the language 'living' at the moment. This
language has not yet been well studied for we have obtained only limited data
so far.
Additionally, the
SIL Ethnologue's mentioning of the death of the Kusunda language has also
dispirited linguists to find other Kusunda speakers and study the language.
Under the auspices of His Majesty's Government of Nepal, I could go for some
research and find a few Kusundas who can speak the language fluently. A month ago, I have been informed again
that there is yet another male Kusunda who can also speak the language. I hope
to see him soon. Therefore, there are still ample opportunities for everyone of
us to study the language and understand its importance.
When
talking of the Kusundas we happen to remember Hodgson. Having lived in Nepal
for a long time in the early nineteenth century, Hodgson had been very
fortunate to go into studies on languages, literatures and religions of Nepal
and Tibet. He was much fascinated by ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity
of the Himalayan region. His works on these areas are always great. But, as
concern Kusundas he could not personally meet with them and has so admitted
"During a long residence in Nepal, I never could gain the least access
to the Kusundas, though aided by all the authority of the Durbar." (Hodgson 1957). In those days, Nepal was
experiencing certain political changes
– the Rana Regime was
recently installed and lasted for 104 years; under them, there were no
educational and other sorts of developments. It is therefore understandable
that Hodgson’s assistants were people from other communities. It is also
possible that those assistants were not even from the speakers’
neighbouring community and had very little knowledge of Kusunda as well as of
Tibeto-Burman languages in Nepal. Needless to say therefore, some of the
Kusunda data obtained that way now require verification.
Grierson
drew on Hodgson’s vocabulary for the Linguistic Survey of India in 1909.
Later scholars also have drawn from the latter's work. These data have to be
independently verified again. Below is a
comparative listing of Hodgson data, drawn from the Linguistic Survey of India:
|
English |
New Data |
Hodgson data |
One
|
kasti
|
Goisang |
Two
|
dukhu |
Ghinga |
Three
|
dahat |
Daha |
Four
|
pigo |
Pinjang |
Five
|
? |
Pangang-jang |
House
|
wohi |
Bahi |
Hand
|
nabi/amokh |
Gipa |
Child
|
ghichi |
gitase/chyachi |
tooth
|
ouhu |
toho |
eye
|
ining |
chining |
good
|
uhin |
waiyaki |
trail
|
ung |
won |
he
|
git/gina |
gida |
Reinhard-Toba Data:
John Reinhard and Sueyoshi Toba also worked on Kusunda some
32 years ago. Their data are the primary data recorded by Reinhard from the
field, which were later analyzed by Toba in Kathmandu. But, the latter had not
been able to see and speak with the Kusundas in person. Both of them were non-native
researchers. I have found a number redundant data in Reinhard-Toba lists,
nevertheless, it is a scientifically accomplished work. Reinhard has honestly
admitted "this (Kusunda analysis) unfortunately was based on very
little data, is incomplete and contains several errors; significant variants
obtained from different informants have been listed. Several of these terms
could not be checked and therefore the list should not be considered
definitive" Reinhard (1976). Therefore, there are also some inevitable
redundancies.
Similarities with Other Languages
Having found some sorts of
similarities with a few indigenous languages of the Tibeto-Burman family, I
therefore believe that Kusunda originated in the Sino-Tibetan area. Kusunda *mahi (water buffalo) and *mai (mother) are similar to Central Magar mahi and mai, with the same meanings; cf. also Sanskrit
mahisha. Kusunda
mai is quite close
to Sanskrit *maataa meaning 'mother'. Some other Tibeto-Burman linguistic communities also
have 'mai' for
mother. In the same manner Kusunda and Magar say suta for 'thread' and its Prakrit is sutta and in Sanskrit it is suutra.
I have already mentioned above that
some linguists differ with my view on the origin of Kusunda. They believe that
Kusunda is a language isolate – not sharing recent common origin with any
languages. But my recent findings confirm that Kusunda has noticeable
affinities with a number of indigenous languages spoken across northern belt of
Nepal. Therefore, it is possible that this language originated in the
Sino-Tibetan area and other major language families also shared with it. Below
are some sample cognates.
1. one
KUSUNDA: kasti; TIBETO-BURMAN: kat (Central Magar)
2. blood
KUSUNDA: uyu ; TIBETO-BURMAN : chyuhui (Baram),
uyu (Chepang), hayu (Dura)
3. trail
KUSUNDA: ung; TIBETO-BURMAN: ungma (Baram)
4. fish
KUSUNDA: ngsa ; TIBETO-BURMAN: ngyasya (Western Magar), ngya (Chepang), dishya (Central Magar), dishya (Dura)
5. fire
KUSUNDA: za ; TIBETO-BURMAN: chhawo > warm/hot (Tibetan)
6. language
KUSUNDA: gepan ; TIBETO-BURMAN: ge+pang (Western Magar > ge = we/our, pang = language), ke-gepa (Tibetan: meaning 'you cry aloud').
7. banana
KUSUNDA: mucha ; TIBETO-BURMAN: mocha (Central Magar); moje, (Tamang), muja (Dura), mach (Gurung); also in Dravidian (Tulu mote etc.)
8. water buffalo
KUSUNDA: mahi; TIBETO-BURMAN: mahi (Central Magar), mai/maikha (Dura), mai (Gurung); cf. Skt. mahisha
9. village
KUSUNDA: langhai; TIBETO-BURMAN: langha (Central Magar)
10. sun
KUSUNDA: in/ing, TIBETO-BURMAN: nin/nim (Nymba), nima (Tibetan), nyam (Chepang)
11. bread
KUSUNDA: mangmi; TIBETO-BURMAN: mangmi (Bhote)
12. mother
KUSUNDA: mai; TIBETO-BURMAN: mai (Central Magar/Western Magar),
INDO-EUROPEAN: maataa (Sanskrit)
13. forest
KUSUNDA: gelang : SINO-TIBETAN: bling
14. thread
KUSUNDA : suta: SINO-TIBETAN : suta (Central Magar) ; INDO-EUROPEAN : sutta ( Pali/Prakrit); suutra (Sanskrit)
15. crab
KUSUNDA: kakchi SINO-TIBETAN: khakre (Tamang)
16. snake
KUSUNDA: tu; SINO-TIBETAN: du (Bhote); pu (Kulung Rai)
17. egg
KUSUNDA: gwa; SINO-TIBETAN: wa-kun (Chepang); wadi (Kulung Rai)
18. monkey
KUSUNDA: guinyau (CN), haku (MWN); SINO-TIBETAN
: laku (Dura)
19. nose
KUSUNDA: inau SINO-TIBETAN: nu (Dura)
20. Leg
KUSUNDA: yen/yeng SINO-TIBETAN: lung (Kulung Rai)
21. Louse
KUUNDA: kee SINO-TIBETAN: see (Kulung Rai)
22. goat
KUSUNDA: miza (CN), azaki (MWN), INDO-EUROPEAN: aja (Sanskrit)
The list above shows that Kusunda has some kind of
relationship with other languages across Nepal. Therefore, this sort of
relationship should not be taken as borrowings only. It is also a matter of
deep study as to who borrowed from whom? Below I give some further explanation of the language:
(a) There
is prominence of nasal 'h'
sound in Kusunda language and one of the striking characteristics of
Tibeto-Burman languages is that they have nasal 'h' prominently occurring in all distributions;
for example, ngsa
‘fish’, ngyangdi ‘woman’, dimtang ‘beer’, langhai
‘village’, ung ‘trail’, gelang ‘forest’, ing
‘sun’, mangmi ‘bread’, sijang
‘beer’, etc. The Santhal language beloging to the Austro-Asiatic
Munda family has 'yeh' prominently
occurring in its major word classes.
(b) For
‘fish’ the Kusundas say ngsa' [h+sa], the Magars
of the Karnali area say *ngya+sya, the Chepangs ngya
or nga, the Barams nanga and the Magars
of the Gandaki area [di+sya]. These segments [h+sa], [nga+sya] and [di+sya] have the same
meaning and the formation of these words are also distinctly similar. The
Kusunda [h+sa]
has *n of nur or
ngr for water and *sa for meat. Fish is
‘meat from water’. Therefore *ngsa
is a Tibeto-Burman word.
(c) Concerning
numerals in Kusunda there is 'kasti' for '1' and 'pigo'
for '4'. In the Magar language of Central Nepal these are 'kat' and 'buli' respectively.
In the Baram language 4 is called 'bi'. The Kusunda
‘pigo’, Baram ‘bi’
and Magar ‘buli’ have bilabial
similarities. In Kusunda, counting does not exceed five: kasti
for 1, dukhu for 2, dahat
for 3, pigo for 4 and pangang-jang
for 5. The case is very similar to the Magar language: Magars have 'kat'
for 1, 'nish' for 2, 'song'
for 3, ‘buli’ for 4, ' bang’
for 5.
Kusunda
is a complex language. The problem lies in its pronominalization. The
Hodgson-Grierson and Reinhard-Toba data, which most later day linguists have
utilized have to be reanalyzed. Comparatively, the Reinhard-Toba data seem to
have been obtained more scientifically than Hodgson- Grierson's. But the
former's data have also been found
to contain some flaws. My informants have given me comparatively different
data. Therefore, we should also check other sources, along with these two,
before we draw any conclusion. I understand that the Kusundas have a habit of
answering someone's question just in one word or two, which is a most common
feature in other languages of the
Tibeto-Burman family. We do not find formal expressions in Tibeto-Burman
languages. They are just spoken in one or two words. The same can be traced out
in the Kusunda language also. For example :
|
|
English |
Kusunda |
|
(I) |
eat |
taman |
|
(I) |
give |
itanan |
|
(It) |
bites |
kamaji |
My stomach = chii chimat
Your stomach = nii nimat
His stomach = gidi gimat
I have been able to
record some Kusunda sample sentences few months ago. These sentences are
collected from two female Kusunda speakers of the Rolpa and Dang districts, in
mid-west Nepal. One of the speakers' daughter, who is married to a Chettri,
also can speak the language. While at home, mother and daughter converse in
Kusunda language. I found Kusundas
have a habit of speaking only one word or short phrases when speaking to
others.
|
English |
Kusunda |
|
|
I
eat rice |
chi
kadi gaman / kadi tamdi |
|
|
I
go home |
chi
woha / wohi tagai |
|
|
I
come home |
chi
waha / wohi tugun |
|
|
He
eats rice |
git
kadi gaman |
|
|
You
eat rice |
nu
kaji naman |
|
|
(You)
come here |
taba
aaga |
|
|
(I)
drink water |
tang
chongdi |
|
|
I
go along this way |
taun
chahan |
|
|
I
live at home |
wohi
sahan |
|
|
I live
in(side) the home |
aawa
sahan |
|
|
It
rained |
tang
ugun (tãun) |
|
|
It
rained yesterday |
pene
tang ugun |
|
|
The
sun rose |
ing
ugi |
|
|
A
hard sun ! |
ing
haap ! |
|
Comparative Study
of Kusunda with the Magar Language of the Karnali Area[5]
Both
the Kusunda and the Magar languages of the Karnali area have distinct
similarities; however, we can find a number of Kusunda cognates that are
similar to other Tibeto-Burman languages like Shauka, Baram, Chepang,
Tamang, Thaksya, Bhote, Bhujel etc. The Magars of the
Karnali area call the languages of others’, including Nepali, the state
language of Nepal, 'rangpang' and call their own
language 'gepang'.
Kusundas also call their
own language 'gepang'. Both 'gepangs'
have striking syntactic similarities:
|
Kusunda Gepan |
Western Magar Gepang
|
|
chi
kadi gaman (I
rice eat) |
nga
yai/kang jyonga (I
rice eat) |
|
git
kadi gaman (He
rice eats) |
wola
yai/kang jyowa (He
rice eats) |
|
nu
kadi naman (You
rice eat) |
nanga
yai/kang jyona (You
rice eat) |
In the Kusunda sentences given above there are
pronominalized verbal prefixes, and in Western Magar sentences we can see
pronominalized verbal suffixes. Have prefixes and suffixes different functions
in the process of word formation?
Below I give a few more pronominalized sentences and phrases from the
Magar language of the Karnali area in Kusunda structure:
|
Western Magar Gepang |
English |
|
nga ri ngawoje |
I
water drink. |
|
nang ri nawoje |
You
water drink |
|
ge ri gewoje |
We
water drink |
|
nga ngalijjya |
I
(here) am |
|
nang nalijjya |
You
(there) are |
|
ge gelijjya |
We
(here) are |
|
nga ngado |
I
(it) do |
|
nang nado |
You
(it) do |
|
Ge gedo |
We
(it) do. |
The
above examples indicate that Kusunda is not a language isolate. It is quite similar to the Kham Magar
language of the Karnali area, which shows that Kusunda has some sort of
affinity with Tibeto-Burman. Unfortunately, Hodgson-Grierson and
Reinhard-Toba do not seem to have made any effort to compare Kusunda with other
Tibeto-Burman languages found in Nepal. Had they been able to study the Western
Magar language, they would have categorized Kusunda as having originated in the
Sino-Tibetan area.
Comparison with
Kulung Rai Language
The eastern part of Nepal is primarily
inhabited by the Rai and Limbu ethnic groups. These peoples speak their own
languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family. Kulung Rai is also a
pronominalized language. Below I give a few words and sentences of Kulung
Rai language:
Kulung Rai Words
|
I = kong |
he = nako |
we = keika |
|
kaska = we two |
snake = pu |
waas = play |
|
sun = namchhoba |
stone = lung |
egg = wadi |
|
leg = lung |
water = kaw |
tree = seechho |
Kulung Rai Counting
|
one = ibum |
two = nichi |
|
three = supchi |
four = lichi |
|
five = ngachi |
a person = ilpo |
|
two persons =
nipppo |
three persons =
suppo |
|
four persons =
lippo |
five persons =
ngapo |
Kulung Rai Sentences
|
I eat rice =
konga ja choyo |
He eats rice =
nskosa ja choyo |
|
We eat rice =
keika ja chyaeka |
We (two) eat
rice = kaska nippo ja chaichuka |
|
We (two) play =
kaska was laichika |
We (many) paly
= Keika lai laiyaka |
|
Santhal |
English |
|
uni
dakay jama
|
He
eats rice |
|
aam
dakang jama |
You
eat rice |
|
aale
dakale jama |
We
eat rice |
|
ing
daing nyuya |
I
drink water |
|
ale
menak liya |
We
are |
One
of the most powerful functions of a language is that of a repository of the
culture and worldview of its speakers. Its grammar and lexicon store the shared
experiences of past generations, and a language is the channel by which these
images, emotions, knowledge and beliefs are transmitted to the next. A language
does not just transmit messages; it decorates them aesthetically, and so
facilitates their reception and retention. In the preceding
paragraphs I have explained how important the Kusunda language is for serious
studies. Kusunda appears to have external relationships with a number of
indigenous peoples’ languages spoken across the world – from Alaska
of North America to South and Central Africa, Europe, Asia and New Zealand.
(See Annex 3).
I believe
Kusunda, as one of the ancient languages, could also be a reliable tool for
understanding the prehistory of early peoples in South Asia. It is therefore very high time that the
Kusundas should be preserved in an equitable manner. The Kusundas should not be
deprived of their human rights. Following what has already been said in the
declaration of the rights of persons belonging to national, ethnic, religious
and linguistic minorities, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
resolution 47/135 of 18 December 1992, His Majesty's Government of Nepal has
been very keen to implement an integrated community development programme for
the indigenous peoples, including
the Kusundas, who are living in different parts of the country.
Since, the
Kusundas are in a state of impoverishment, they urgently require genuine
support from among governmental as well as non-governmental organizations that
are working for the all-round development of the peoples of Nepal. By bringing
the Kusundas together in one place and encouraging them to communicate among themselves in their own
language, Kusunda language can be
stabilized. There are some other Kusundas, of mixed origin, who also wish to
learn this language and seek our support. Additionally, in order to preserve
other Himalayan languages, we should undertake a further Linguistic Survey of
Nepal, employing professionals especially from among those of the speakers' own
communities, so that we might be able to fully understand the Kusunda and other
languages in the Himalayas.
*******
|
Old record |
New record |
English Equivalent |
|
nabi
|
amokh (MWN) |
Hand |
|
aicha |
archa
(MWN) |
Needle |
|
- |
bai
(MWN) |
Sister |
|
ngyangdi |
nangdighichi
(MWN) |
Woman |
|
dhukchi |
duighihi |
Son |
|
makche |
makche |
young
man |
|
oichindi |
usindi
(MWN) |
young
woman |
|
- |
dhaiya
(MWN) |
Old
man |
|
ghichi |
gheche
(MWN) |
Child |
|
wou |
Wou |
Stone |
|
guinayu
(CN) |
haku
(MWN) |
Monkey |
|
bokh |
garhu
(MWN) |
Warm |
|
- |
puhut
(MWN) |
Hot |
|
- |
yakkau
(MWN) |
Cool |
|
khangu |
khangu
(MWN) |
Cold |
|
nikhumba |
nongba
(MWN) |
Ox/cow |
|
- |
abo |
Vegetables |
|
- |
abu |
Yam |
|
nyu |
nyu |
Man/person |
|
manenu |
manenu
(MWN) |
Many
people |
|
- |
kugjangnu
(MWN) |
Few
people |
|
ohin |
ohin |
Nice |
|
dintakanyia |
tang |
Wine |
|
- |
dimtang(CN/MWN)/sijang
(MWN) |
Beer |
|
miza |
ajaki
(MWN) |
Goat |
|
-
|
ipan |
Maize |
|
- |
sising
(MWN) |
Paddy |
|
- |
kadida
(CN) |
Rice
|
|
kaadi |
kaadi |
Rice
(cooked) |
|
- |
paiti
(CN) |
Pulses |
|
- |
suta
(CN/MWN) |
Thread |
|
- |
abokh
(CN) |
Yam
|
|
Gihan
|
myau |
Female sex organ |
|
Gibhu |
konji |
Male sex organ |
|
Gwa |
gwa |
Egg |
|
Gipan |
gipan |
Language |
|
Itak |
itak |
Root |
|
- |
gigzi (CN)/dazzi
(MWN) |
Firewood |
|
- |
pungar
(CN) |
Haystack |
|
jing |
jing |
Mustard
oil |
|
za |
za |
Fire |
|
jai |
jai |
Ashes |
|
tut |
tut |
Bow |
|
ii |
ii |
Tree |
|
- |
mui |
Arrow
head |
|
un |
un |
Trail |
|
sara |
sara |
Long |
|
gali |
gali |
Sand |
|
lahang |
langhai |
Village |
|
- |
gelang |
Forest |
|
whoi |
waha |
House |
|
aayi |
pai
(CN) |
Bamboo |
|
gipan |
gipan |
Flower |
|
gitak |
gitak |
Seed |
|
kai |
kai |
Wind |
|
- |
hyo |
Mango
seed |
|
- |
phuchi |
Stool |
|
- |
syangwa |
Large
tree |
|
- |
huki |
Salt |
|
- |
amba
(MWN) |
Meat |
|
tang |
tang |
Water |
|
tapghichi |
tapghichi |
Chicken |
|
- |
tapgimi |
Cock |
|
itak |
itak |
Root |
|
mangmi |
mangmi |
Bread |
|
- |
bukta |
Clothes |
Words for family relations:
Old Data New
Data
English
Equivalent
|
mai |
mai |
Mother |
|
yehi |
yehi |
Father |
|
- |
bai
(MWN) |
Sister |
|
- |
bhaya
(MWN) |
Younger
brother |
|
- |
nyakham
(MWN) |
Maternal
uncle |
|
- |
nangbi (MWN) |
Maternal
aunt |
|
- |
yangzar(MWN) |
Great
uncle |
|
- |
mizarni
(MWN) |
Great
aunt |
|
- |
yamala(MWN) |
Middle
uncle |
|
- |
yamali(MWN) |
Middle
aunt |
|
- |
yaisala(MWN) |
Younger
uncle |
|
- |
maisali(MWN) |
Younger
aunt |
|
- |
yakanchha(MWN) |
Youngest
uncle |
|
- |
makanchhi (MWN) |
Youngest
aunt |
Parts of the Body
|
ipi
= head |
ipi
= hair (CN) |
gee
= hair (MWN) |
|
inang
= eye |
inau
= nose |
aata
= mouth |
|
nabi
= arm |
amokh
= hand |
hanki
= neck |
|
yan/yang
= foot |
okchi
= chest |
ambu
= breast |
|
idu
= liver |
gepo
= flesh |
gu
= bone |
|
konji = male sex organ |
myau = vagina(CN) |
uyu
= blood |
|
imat
= stomach |
|
|
Pronouns
|
chi
= I |
nu
= you |
git/gina
= he, |
|
chiyi
= my (HG) |
niyi = thy (H&G) |
gida =
he, she, it (HG) |
Verbs:
|
go
= tagai |
went
= dagai |
come
= aaga |
|
eat
= taman |
give
= itanan |
bite
= kamaji |
|
aganan
= (he) makes |
chaanaan
= (I) go |
eat
= gaman |
|
Nyawan =
to collect (RT) |
|
|
Name of mammals, birds, reptiles, insects,
etc.
|
mayhaq
= tiger
|
kauli = tiger |
|
aagai
= dog |
mahi
= water buffalo |
|
guinyau
= monkey (CN) |
haku
= monkey (MWN) |
|
samtak
= squirrel |
nikhumba
= ox/cow (CN) |
|
nongba
= ox/cow (MWN) |
amba =
an animal living in trees |
|
Yangut
= mongoose (CN) |
tap
= jungle fowl |
|
miaa
= lion? (R & T ) |
tu
= snake |
|
kee
= louse |
pui = a kind of amphibian |
*NB:
CN > Central Nepal, MWN > Midwest Nepal, HG > Hodgson and Grierson, RT
> Reinhard and Toba
Annex: 2
Santhal words and
sentences
Santhal
is a Munda language belonging to the Austro-Asiatic language; it is spoken by the Santhals
living in the eastern lowlands
(Terai) of Nepal. They have even
developed a script of their own. This is also a pronominalized language. Below
I give some Santhal words and sentences from my recent survey:
|
sengel
= fire |
da
= water |
hawai
= air |
|
buru
= mountain |
tandi
= plain |
bir
= forest |
|
sahan
= firewood |
tasat
= grass |
gada
= river |
|
daka = rice (cooked) |
hudu
= paddy |
dul
= pour |
|
ha:d
= man |
manmi
= man |
aihad
= woman |
|
babahad
= father |
dahar
= trail |
du
(la) = pulses |
|
dal
= beat |
nydachado = moon |
seingchando = sun |
|
eipil
= star |
rimil
= cloud |
dhiri
= stone |
|
sherma
= sky |
seta
= dog |
hadam
= oldman |
|
sagad
= bull cart |
rabang
= cold |
reyang
= cool |
|
lal
= hot |
hamal
= heavy |
hasa
= soil |
|
haku
= fish |
shaska=
happy |
odab=
house |
|
parkam= siesta bed |
sadag = ditch |
khandriya=
deep |
|
sadag=
stream |
sakam
= leaf |
dar = branch of tree |
|
rehed
= root |
jandra
= maize |
aadag = green vegetable |
|
ub
= hair |
chadi=
forehead |
medh=
eye |
|
mu
= nose |
lutur
= ear |
tanka = back of the neck |
|
hadg
= neck |
kadam
= chest |
ti
= hand |
|
katub
= finger |
rama
= nail |
diya = backbone ? |
|
lag
= stomach |
buka
= navel |
danda=
waist |
Pronouns
|
iyng =
I |
aam
= you/thou |
aale
= we |
|
uni
= he/she/it |
eygnya
= my |
uniya
= his/her |
|
aaleya
= our |
aama
= your |
unkuwa
= their |
|
unku
= they |
unkin
= your (two) |
|
Days of the week
|
singemaha
= Sunday |
atemaha
= Monday |
balemaha
= Tuesday |
|
sagunmaha=
Wednesday |
sardimaha=
Thursday |
jarunmaha
= Friday |
|
nyuhumaha
= Saturday |
yamha = week |
maha = day |
|
seta
= morning |
tikin
= noon |
singad =
afternoon |
|
ayub
= evening |
ngida
= night |
talangida = mid night |
|
sim
rag = dwan |
nyuhum
= dusk |
basiym=breakfast time |
Directions
|
samang
= east |
pachhe
= west |
konye
= north |
yetm
= south |
|
sehet
= towards (direction) |
note
= towards (here) |
hante
= towards (there) |
latar
= downwards |
|
chitan=upwards |
chitan = above |
latar
= below |
|
Some Sentences
|
Santhal |
English |
|
darire
chedyn ab aakana |
There
is a bird on the tree. |
|
unku
okare menak kuwa ? |
Where
are they? |
|
chet
uni dakai jama ? |
Did
he eat rice ? |
|
uni
jajam kanai ? |
He
is eating |
|
aaleku
menak leya |
We
are ( many) |
|
aaliya
menakliya |
We
are two |
|
ing
dakayn jama |
I
eat rice |
*****
Annex: 3
The External Relationships of Kusunda with other
Languages[7]
1. 'man'
KUSUNDA : hu/hiyu 'man' — Ainu – ainu,
niyu (person) INDO-PACIFIC : [Timor-Alar] Makasai anu, Bunak en 'man'; NA-DENE : Tlingit na 'tribe' 'people', SUMERIAN : na 'person' ni-ta, ni-tah 'man' INDO-EUROPEAN : *ner 'man, male', ALTAIC* nairL 'man person', KADU : Miri huri, NIGER-CONGO : Mande nu, Kpelle nu 'man', Bambara nyi, Nalu nyie, Mossi ni, Kasele onyi, Adele (e) ni, Yoruba ni, Likpe ni etc.
2. 'belly'
KUSUNDA : imat,
tamat 'belly';
AMERIND *mat; TASMAN [W,SE] lomati (na); NA-DENE; Athabaskan *w¶t 'belly'; Eyak w¶t 'vomit', BURUSHASKI- wat 'body, self
3.
'egg'
KUSUNDA : goa, gwa 'egg';
ANDAMAN: Onge gwagane 'turtle egg'; SINO-TIBETAN : *Qo(w)H 'egg' Tibetan s-go-na
'egg(s)'; NA-DENE: Haidaqaw 'bird egg'
4. 'water'
KUSUNDA
: tah 'water' : NA-DENE : Haida tah 'sea water', Eyak tah 'waves',
Galice ta-
water (in compounds); Chipewyan ta- Narajo ta'-
'water'
5. 'fire'
KUSUNDA : dza, za
'fire', Sino-Tibetan tsha
'hot', SUMERIAN : i-zi 'fire, ALTAIC *asa
to ignite, Gilyak t'a, KHOISAN Hiechware joaa,
INDO-PACIFIC Moni usa 'fire' DENE-CAUCASIC : Basque su,
Caucasic ts'ayi
'fire', NILO-SAHARAN, Lendu kazz 'fire' NIGER CONGO : Bambara,
Dyula, Mano, Vai ta.
6. 'house'
KUSUNDA : wohi 'house', INDO-PACIFIC
[SNG] Hiwi aba,
Sesa pei
'village', Jelmek ebi; NIGER-CONGO: Tschi O-fi;
O-fi-e
'home', Nyangbo ke-pi 'home, house', Bamana pu-ye
7. 'thunder, lightning'
KUSUNDA:
khila; ANDAMAN: Bale kuru:dLke 'thunder' AUSTRIC: Indonesian *kilat
'lightning', kilap
'glitter'
Bandhu, C.M. 1999: Keynote Address
to the Fifth Himalayan Language
Symposium Kathmandu Sept. 13-15 1999.
Fleming, Harold 1996: Looking to the West and North: Nihali
and Kusunda Find Links Mother
Tongue II, Journal of the Association for the Study of Language in
Prehistory, Issue II ( December
1996) Harvard University 2 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge MA 02138 USA.
Grierson, G. A.
1909: Linguistic Survey of India, New Delhi, India
Grime, Barbara
ed. 2000: Ethnologue languages of the world, SIL
Gurung, Hark
1998: Nepal Social Demography and Expressions,
New ERA Kathmandu, Nepal
Hodgson, Brian H.
1857: Journal of Asiatic Society - Bengal and Asian
Educational Services C-2/15, SDA, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
Luitel, Guna
Raj 2000: Sadhaika Lagi lope
Huanai Lageka Chhan Kusunda Janajati (The Kusunda are on the brink of
extinction) Kantipur, National Daily, May 19, 2000.
________ 2000:
Kusunda Janajatiko Addhyanka Aadhar Biundu Rajamama (Rajamama: The person on
whom Kusunda studies could be initiated) Kantipur, National Daily, May 23,
2000.
Pokharel, Madhav.
P. 1993: Nepalale Angikar Garnuparne Bhashik Niti ra Bhashik Yojana: (Langauge Policy and Planning for Nepal)
Pragyan 79, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu.
Rana B. K. 2000: An Ethnographic Study on
the Shaukas of Byas Valley, Janajati, Vol. 2 No. 1 Journal
of Nationalities of Nepal Kathmandu.
__________ 2000:
The Lone Kusunda: Struggles for
survival. Report submitted to National Committee for Development of
Nationalities, Kathmandu, Nepal.
__________ 2000: Writing on a Dead Language, The
Kathmandu Post, April 16, 2000.
__________
2001: Kusundaharuko Aanubanshik Parichhan Kina
? (Why are we required to have genetic tests of the Kusundas ?) Kantipur
National Daily, May 31, 2001.
__________ 2001: A short note on Kusunda language,
Janajati Vol.2 No. 4 Journal of Nationalities of
Nepal, Kathmandu.
__________
2001: Loponmukha Kusunda Jati, Ek Manab Bhasashastriya Adhyan
(The Endangered Kusundas : A Linguistic Anthropological Study) Report submitted
to His Majesty's Government of Nepal, July 5, 2001
__________ 2001: Note on the Kusunda
Language : OGMIOUS, Summer 31 August 2001,
Foundation for Endangered Languages, 172 Bailbrook Lane, Bath 1 7AA, England.
__________ 2001 : Revitalizing Kusunda Language in
the Himalayas. Paper presented to a symposium on Linguistic Perspectives on
Endangered Languages, organized by the Linguistic Association
of Finland, at Helsinki University, Finland, August 29 - September 1, 2001.
Reinhard,
Johan 1968: The Kusunda:
Ethnographic Notes on a Hunting tribe of Nepal. Bulletin of the
International Committee on Urgent Anthropological Ethnological Research No 10.
__________ 1976: The Bana Rajas – A
Vanishing Himalayan Tribe. Contribution
to Nepalese Studies. Journal of the Institute of Nepal and
Asian Studies-Tribhuvan University – Kathmandu.
Reinhard & Toba
1970 : A Preliminary Linguistic Analysis and Vocabulary of the
Kusunda Language, University
of Vienna and Summer Institute of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu,
Nepal..
Risely, H. H,
George Grierson and William Crooke : 1931/1975. The Ethnology, Language.
Literature and Religions of India. Delhi: The Academic Press.
Whitehouse, Paul
1997: The External Relationships
of the Nihali and Kusunda Languages.
Mother Tongue III : Journal of the Association for the Study of language in
Prehistory Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138 USA.
Witzel, Michael
1999: Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages. Mother Tongue
(extra number October 1999) Journal of the Association for the Study of
language in Prehistory Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138 USA.
[1] 'Myahak' is tribal name for
Kusundas. Note that the Gurungs have 'Tamus', Shaukas 'Rongs' and Limbus – 'Yakthungs'
as
their tribal names.
[2] The Raute are another
ethnic group that live in the jungles of West Nepal even today; they speak
Khamchi - a Tibeto-Burman language
and they have clan names just as the Kusundas. Their females are not free and
are treated differently than in the Kusunda community.
[3] Kusundas and Rautes have been found taking 'Thakuri' surnames such as Sen, Singh, Saha, Malla etc., mainly to uphold their social status. If only a few of them are 'Upgraded Kusundas' then the Kusunda population would increase reasonably; for, the Thakuri population in the last national population census (1991) was 1.62 % of the total 18,491,097. When addressed abusively Thakuris are also called 'Kusundas' by other peoples. The present Shah King dynasty belongs to the Thakuri community. In the coat of arms there is a picture of a hunter with a bow and arrow in his hands. The Kusundas have the word ‘tut’ and ‘mui’ for bow and arrow respectively.
[4] Chepangs are another ethnic group in
the central hills of Nepal. Hodgson had found them ' few degrees above than the
Kusundas' . Nevertheless, few of them can still be found in caves they are
doing better in recent years.
[5] Known as Kham Magar language
[6]. Some of the words in the list have
been recorded quite recently. This language seems to have 'eastern’ and
‘western' dialects. For example: ‘blood’ in Kusunda is uyu,
and ‘monkey’ is guinyau. But, recent data differ as my informants say lapa and haku respectively.
[7] These are few of the
selected examples drawn from Paul Whitehouse's work for showing the external
relationships of Kusunda language and its importance for studying prehistory of
the South Asian peoples. I have copied them from the writer's article in Mother
Tongue
(1997).